e-ISSN: 2617-7668
print ISSN: 2522-9176
Nosocomial infections in the Intensive care unit: global problem of modern medicine
Review Article
Nosocomial infections in the Intensive care unit: global problem of modern medicine
Published: April 1, 2018
Abstract
Increased volume of surgical interventions, improvement of efficiency of special treatment modalities and modes of respiratory support, as well as development of new generation antibiotic medications has led to significant improvement of clinical outcomes of intensive therapy for critical conditions. At the same time, introduction of innovative and largely invasive interventions resulted in the emergence of new disease entities.
Presently, the development of hospital-acquired infections (HAI) has become one of the riveting and serious problems of modern hospitals. These infections often lead to prolonged hospital stay, which in turn adds to the morbidity and mortality, worsen patient quality of life and also has significant economic consequences [1-5].
There are number of varying definitions of infections related to medical care [6]. According to the WHO, infections that develop 48 hours after hospitalization, excluding the incubation period, are called hospital-acquired or nosocomial infections. Some authors also include here infections that develop 4 weeks after patient’s discharge from hospital or 30 days after surgical interventions are also included in this category. Infections that develop within 30 days after last chemotherapy in patients with metastatic cancer are also included as additional criteria according to a medical literature [7]. Other authors conclude that readmission of patients with established infection that was the result of previous hospitalization as well as any infectious diseases of hospital employee that develops secondary to the work in the hospital, irrespective to the time of onset of symptoms (during or after the hospital visit or stay) shall also be regarded as the hospital-acquired infections (HAI) [8-10].
The average prevalence of HAI is around 3.5-10.5% or 9.0-91.7 cases per 1000 patient-days [11]. It is estimated that the probability of infectious complications increases after five days of hospitalization [12]. According to the modern medical knowledge, the prevalence of HAI of various causes among the hospitalized patients in North America and Europe is around 5-10% and those in Latin America and Asia is around 40% [13,14]. The mortality among patients with HAI is seven times higher than among other patients aligned based on age, sex, main disease and comorbidities and severity of disease. According to the official statistics, HAIs are fourth most common cause of mortality in the US leading to 90.000 deaths annually. Annual economic burden and additional costs associated with the treatment of HAIs in the US is about 2.4-4.5 billion US dollars [15-17].
References
1. Lautenbach E, Perencevich EM. Addressing the emergence and impact of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative organisms: a critical focus for the next decade. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014 ;35:333-335.
2. Mikael Rahmqvist, Annika Samuelsson, Salumeh Bastami, Hans Rutberg. Direct health care costs and length of hospital stay related to health care-acquired infections in adult patients based on point prevalence measurements. American Journal of Infection Control Volume 44, Issue 5, 1 May 2016, Pages 500–506
3. Eyal Zimlichman, MD, Daniel Henderson, Orly Tamir, Health Care –Associated Infections. A Meta-analysis of Costs and Financial Impact on the US Health Care System JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(22):2039-2046.
4. WHO, Report on the Burden of Endemic Health Care-Associated Infection Worldwide: a system review of the literature. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/80135/1/9789241501507_eng.pdf. 2011.
5. Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, Zaidi AK, Wertheim HF, Sumpradit N, et al., Antibiotic resistancethe need for global solutions. Lancet Infect Dis, 2013. 13(12): p. 1057–1098.
6. Teresa Cardoso, Mónica Almeida, N Deborah Friedman, Irene Aragão, Altamiro Costa-Pereira, António E Sarmento, Luís Azevedo. Classification of healthcare-associated infection: a systematic review 10 years after the first proposal BMC Medicine 2014,12:40
7. Lenz R, Leal JR, Church DL, Gregson DB, Ross T, Laupland KB: The distinct category of healthcare associated bloodstream infections. BMC Infect Dis. 2012, 12: 85-10.1186/1471-2334-12-85.
8. Grenier C, Pepin J, Nault V, Howson J, Fournier X, Poirier M-S, Cabana J, Craig C, Beaudoin M, Valiquette L: Impact of guideline-consistent therapy on outcome of patients with healthcare-associated and community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011, 66: 1617-1624.
9. Al-Hasan MN, Eckel-Passow JE, Baddour LM: Impact of healthcare-associated acquisition on community-onset Gram-negative bloodstream infection: a population-based study: healthcare-associated Gram-negative BSI. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 31: 1163-1171.
10. Ishida T, Tachibana H, Ito A, Yoshioka H, Arita M, Hashimoto T: Clinical characteristics of nursing and healthcare-associated pneumonia: a Japanese variant of healthcare-associated pneumonia. Intern Med. 2012, 51: 2537-2544.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014 National and State Healthcare-Associated Infections Progress Report. Published March, 2016. Available at www.cdc.gov/hai/progress-report/index.html.
12. Белобородов В.Б. Новые российские национальные рекомендации по нозокомиальной пневмонии, Российская медицинская академия последипломного образования, г. Москва 2 (2) 2009 / Клинические рекомендации
13. Elizabeth N. Mbim, Clement I. Mboto and Bassey E. Agbo. A Review of Nosocomial Infections in Sub-Saharan Africa. Mbim et al.; British Microbiology Research Journal BMRJ, 15(1): 1-11, 2016
14. Eliézer Silva; Luiz Dalfior Junior, Haggéas da Silveira, Fernandes, Rui Moreno, Jean-Louis Vincent. Prevalence and outcomes of infections in Brazilian ICUs: a subanalysis of EPIC II study. Rev. bras. ter. intensiva vol.24 no.2 São Paulo Apr./June 2012
15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014 National and State Healthcare-Associated Infections Progress Report. Published March, 2016. Available at www.cdc.gov/hai/progress-report/index.html.
16. Zimlichman E, Henderson D, Tamir O, et al. Health care-associated infections: a meta-analysis of costs and financial impact on the US health care system. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173: 2039-46.
17. CDC NNIS System. National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance (NNIS) Semiannual Report. 2010.
18. Tukenmez Tigen E, Dogru A, Koltka EN, Unlu C, Gura M. Device-associated nosocomial infection rates and distribution of antimicrobial resistance in a medical-surgical intensive care unit in Turkey. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2014;67(1):5-8.
19. Dudeck MA, Edwards JR, Bridson KA, et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) report, data summary for 2013, Device-associated module. Am J Infect Control 2015;43:206-221
20. Mnatzaganian G1, Sprung CL, Zitser-Gurevich Y, Galai N, Goldschmidt N, Levi L, Bar-Lavi Y, Zveibil F, Salz IW, Ekka-Zohar A,Simchen E. Effect of infections on 30-day mortality among critically ill patients hospitalized in and out of the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2008 Apr;36(4):1097-104.
21. Custovic A, Smajlovic J2, Hadzic S, Ahmetagic S, Tihic N, Hadzagic H. Epidemiological surveillance of bacterial nosocomial infections in the surgical intensive care unit. Mater Sociomed. 2014 Feb;26(1):7-11.
22. Kaweesak Chittawatanarat, Wuttipong Jaipakdee, Narain Chotirosniramit, Kamtone Chandacham, Tidarat Jirapongcharoenlap. Microbiology, resistance patterns, and risk factors of mortality in ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia in a Northern Thai tertiary-care university based general surgical intensive care unit. Infection and Drug Resistance 2014:7 203–210
23. Zuhal Yesilbağ, Asli Karadeniz, Seniha Başaran, Fatih Öner Kaya. Nosocomial infections and risk factors in intensive care unit of a university hospital. 239 Journal of Clinical and Experimental Investigations. 2015; 6 (3): 233-239
24. Tao L, Hu B, Rosenthal VD, Gao X, He L. Device-associated infection rates in 398 intensive care units in Shanghai, China: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings. Int J Infect Dis. 2011 Nov;15(11):e774-80.
25. Parida S, Mishra SK. Urinary tract infections in the critical care unit: A brief review. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2013 Nov;17(6):370-4.
26. В.А. Руднов, Д.В. Бельский, А.В. Дехнич. Инфекции в ОРИТ России: результаты национального многоцентрового исследования. Клин Микробиол Антимикроб Химиотер. 2011; 13(4):294-303
27. Liu Ju yuan, Li Yan ming, Cai Meng. Comparative study of surveillance method of healthcare associated infections based on point prevalence survey and hospital-wide surveillance. Abstracts of the 7th International Congress of the Asia Pacific Society of Infection Control, Taipei, Taiwan, March 26-29, 2015,p. S45
28. VinayBadhwar, Jeffrey P.Jacobs. Infections Following Cardiac Surgery: An Opportunity for Clarity. Journal of the American College of Cardiology Volume 65, Issue 1, 6–13 January 2015, Pages 24-26
29. Kavitha Saravu, V. Preethi, Rishikesh Kumar, Vasudev Guddattu, Ananthakrishna Barkur Shastry, Chiranjay Mukhopadhyay Determinants of ventilator associated pneumonia and its impact on prognosis: A tertiary care experience. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2013 Nov-Dec; 17(6): 337–342.
30. Akhtar N. Hospital acquired infections in a medical intensive care unit. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2010 Jun;20(6):386-90.
31. Белобородов, В.Б. Антимикробная терапия тяжелых инфекций в стационаре. Антибактериальная терапия инфекций в отделениях реанимации и интенсивной терапии. -2003. -Т № 2. -С 4 21
32. Louis V, Bihari MB, Suter P, et al. The prevalence of nosocomial Infections in intensive care units in Europe. European Prevalence of infection in Intensive care (EPIC) study. JAMA1995;274: 639–44
33. Magill SS, Edwards JR, Bamberg W, Beldavs ZG, Dumyati G, Kainer MA, et al., Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections. N Engl J Med, 2014. 370(13): p. 1198–1208
34. ECDC, Point prevalence survey of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial use in European acute care hospitals 2011–2012. Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2013.
35. Erdem H, Inan A, Altindis S, Carevic B, Askarian M, Cottle L, et al., Surveillance, control and management of infections in intensive care units in Southern Europe, Turkey and Iran—a prospective multicenter point prevalence study. J Infect, 2014. 68(2): p. 131–140.
36. Moi Lin Ling, Anucha Apisarnthanarak, Gilbert Madriaga. The Burden of Healthcare-Associated Infections in Southeast Asia: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-analysis. Clinical Infectious Diseases Advance Access published March 11, 2015. DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ095
37. Micha Scherbaum, Katrin Kösters, Raymund Egid Mürbeth, Ulysse Ateba Ngoa, Peter Gottfried Kremsner,Bertrand Lell, and Abraham Alabi. Incidence, pathogens and resistance patterns of nosocomial infection at rural hospital in Gabon BMC Infect Dis.2014;14:124.
38. Fereshteh Farzianpour, Ahad Bakhtiari, Mohsen Mohammadi, Omid Khosravizadeh, Hoda Mossavi5, Mohammad Mohseni4, Mohammad Mahboub. Analysis of Nosocomial Infections in Selected Teaching Hospitals, Qazvin, Iran. Health, 2014, 6, 2425-2432
39. Keshni Naidu, Ilisapeci Nabose, Sharan Ram, Kerri Viney, Stephen M. Graham, Karen Bissell A Descriptive Study of Nosocomial Infections in an Adult Intensive Care Unit in Fiji: 2011-12 Journal of Tropical Medicine Volume 2014 (2014), Article ID 545160, 5 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/545160
40. Phu VD, Wertheim HFL, Larsson M, Nadjm B, Dinh Q-D, Nilsson LE, et al. (2016) Burden of Hospital Acquired Infections and Antimicrobial Use in Vietnamese Adult Intensive Care Units. PLoS ONE 11(1): e0147544. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147544
41. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Salomao R, et al. Device-associated nosocomial infections in 55 intensive care units of 8 developing countries. Ann Intern Med 2006; 145: 582-591.
42. Rosenthal VD, Guzman S, Orellano PW. Nosocomial infections in medical-surgical intensive care units in Argentina: attributable mortality and length of stay. Am J Infect Control 2003; 31: 291-295.
43. Velasco E, Thuler LC, Martins CA, Dias LM, Goncalves VM. Nosocomial infections in an oncology intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 1997; 25: 458-462
44. Cevik MA, Yilmaz GR, Erdinc FS, Ucler S, Tulek NE. Relationship between nosocomial infection and mortality in a neurology intensive care unit in Turkey. J Hosp Infect 2005; 59: 324-330.
45. NNIS System. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2003, issued August 2003. Am J Infect Control 2003; 31: 481-498
46. Edwards JR, Peterson KD, Mu Y, et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) report: data summary for 2006 through 2008, issued December 2009. Am J Infect Control 2009; 37: 783-805.
47. KISS Krankenhaus-Infektions-Surveillance-System. Modul ITS-KISS MRE-KISS Referenzdaten Berechnungszeitraum: Januar 2005 bis Dezember 2009. 2010 [in German]. http://www.nrz-hygiene.de/surveillance/kiss/its-kiss/mre-kiss/bc785276/419/452/. (accessed Oct 1, 2010).
48. Arabi Y, Al-Shirawi N, Memish Z, Anzueto A. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults in developing countries: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2008; 12: 505-512.
49. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Mehta Y, Leblebicioglu H, Memish ZA, Al-Mousa HH, et al., International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) report, data summary of 43 countries for 2007–2012. Device-associated module. Am J Infect Control, 2014. 42(9): p. 942–956.
50. Nejad SB, Allegranzi B, Syed SB, Ellis B, Pittet D. Health-care-associated infection in Africa: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ. 2011;14:757–765.
51. Rosenthal VD, Bijie H, Maki DG. International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) report, data summary of 36 countries for 2004–2009. Am J Infect Control 2012; 40:396–407.
52. Hu B, Tao L, Rosenthal VD, Liu K, Yun Y, Suo Y. Device-associated infection rates, device use, length of stay, and mortality in intensive care units of 4 Chinese hospitals: International Nosocomial Control Consortium findings. Am J Infect Control 2013; 41:301–6.
53. Kanj SS, Kanafi ZA, Sidani N, Alamuddin L, Zahreddine N, Rosenthal VD. International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium. Findings of device-associated infections rate in an intensive care unit of a Lebanese university hospital. J Global Infect Dis 2012; 4:15–21
54. Guanche-Garcell H, Requejo-Pino O, Rosenthal VD, Morales-Perez C, Delgado-Gonzalez O, Fernandez-Gonzalez D. Device-associated infection rates in adult intensive care units of Cuban university hospitals: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings. Int J Infect Dis 2011; 15:e357–62.
55. Su C-H, Chang S-C, Yan J-J, Tseng S-H, Chien L-J, Fang C-T. Excess mortality and long-term disability from healthcare-associated Staphylococcus aureus infections: a population-based matched cohort study. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71055.
56. Kwak YG, Lee S-O, Kim HY, et al. Risk factors for device-associated infection related to organisational characteristics of intensive care units: findings from the Korean Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. J Hosp Infect 2010; 75:195–9.
57. Duerink DO, Roeshadi D, Wahjono H, et al. Surveillance of ealthcareassociated infections in Indonesian hospitals. J Hosp Infect 2006; 62:219–29.
58. Thu AT, Hung NV, Quang NN, et al. A point-prevalence study on healthcare-associated infections in Vietnam: public health implications. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011; 32:1039–41.
59. Navoa-Ng JA, Berba R, Galapia YA, et al. Device-associated infections rates in adult, pediatric, and neonatal intensive care units of hospitals in the Philippines: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings. Am J Infect Control 2011; 39:548–54.
60. Katherason SG, Naing L, Jaalam K, et al. Prospective surveillance of nosocomial device-associated bacteremia in three adult intensive units in Malaysia. Trop Biomed 2010; 27:308–16.
61. Werarak P, Kiratisin P, Thamlikitkul V. Hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults at Siriraj Hospital: etiology, clinical outcomes, and impact of antimicrobial resistance. J Med Assoc Thai 2010; 93(Suppl 1):S126–38.
62. Pada SK, Ding Y, Ling ML, Hsu LY, Earnest A, Lee TE. Economic and clinical impact of nosocomial meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in Singapore: a matched case-control study. J Hosp Infect 2011; 78:36–40.
63. Ha N, Ha NTT. Epidemiology of nosocomial infections in selected neonatal intensive care units in children hospital no1, South Vietnam. Am J Infect Control 2012; 40:31–176.
64. Apisarnthanarak A, Bangsong R, Saelao A, et al. Assessment of the 2007 Thai commitment to the Global Patient Safety Campaign. Am J Infect Control 2014; 42:690–1.
65. Nguyen KV, Thi Do NT, Chandna A, Nguyen TV, Pham CV, Doan PM, et al., Antibiotic use and resistance in emerging economies: a situation analysis for Viet Nam. BMC Public Health, 2013. 13: p. 1158.
66. Ector Jaime Ramirez Barba,a Victor Daniel Rosenthal,b Francisco Higuera,c Martha Sobreyra Oropeza,d Hector Torres Herna´ndez,e Martha Sa´nchez Lo´pez,f Elia Lara Lona,a Pablo Duarte,b Javier Ruiz,b Raul Rojas Hernandez,a Amalia Chavez,e Irma Perez Cerrato,f Gloria Elena Ramirez Ramirez,a and Nasia Safdarg. Device-associated nosocomial infection rates in intensive care units in four Mexican public hospitals. Am J Infect Control 2006;34: 244-7
67. B.-E. Ider a,, A.Clements, J.Adams, M.Whitby, T.Muugolog. Organisation of hospital infection control in Mongolia. Journal of Hospital Infection 75(2010) 209-213
68. Katsumi Shigemura, Kayo Osawa, Akira Mukai, Goh Ohji, Jong Ja Lee, Hiroyuki Yoshida, Masato Fujisawa, Soichi Arakawa. Infection control team activity and recent antibiograms in the Kobe University Hospital. The Journal of Antibiotics (2013) 66, 511–516; doi:10.1038/ja.2013.36
69. Rosenthal MB. Nonpayment for performance? Medicare’s new reimbursement rule. N Engl J Med 2007; 357:1573–5.
70. B. Black, Public Reporting of HAI Rates: What We (Mostly Don’t) Know, Clinical Governance 17(2) (2012), 124-133.
71. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Public Reporting as a Quality Improvement Strategy, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 208. [updated 2012], Available from: ttp://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/ehc/products/343/1198/Evidencereport208 CQG Public Reporting Executive Summary 20120724.pdf.
72. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Graves N. The International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC): goals and objectives, description of surveillance methods, and operational activities. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36: 1-12
73. Arabi Y, Al-Shirawi N, Memish Z, Anzueto A. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults in developing countries: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2008; 12: 505-512
74. WHO. The world health report 2006: working together for health. http://www.who.int/whr/2006/en/.
75. Horan TC, Andrus M, Dudeck MA. CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care-associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36: 309–32
76. Berwick DM, Calkins DR, McCannon CJ, Hackbarth AD. The 100,000 lives campaign: setting a goal and a deadline for improving health care quality. JAMA 2006; 295:324–7.
77. Trick WE. Building a data warehouse for infection control. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36:S75–81.
78. Bradley W. Thomas, Robert A. Maxwell, Benjamin W. Dart, Elizabeth H. Hartmann, Dustin L. Bates, Philip W. Smith, Donald E. Barker. Errors in Administrative-Reported Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia Rates: Are Never Events Really So? Annual Scientific Meeting and Postgraduate Course Program, Southeastern Surgical Congress, Chattanooga, TN, February 12–15, 2011, No. 8,p.998-1002
79. Moro ML, Morsillo F. Can hospital discharge diagnoses be used for surveillance of surgical-site infections? J Hosp Infect 2004; 56:239–41.
80. Klompas M. Does this patient have ventilator-associated pneumonia? JAMA 2007; 297:1583–93.
81. Haas JP, Mendonca EA, Ross B, Friedman C, Larson E. Use of computerized surveillance to detect nosocomial pneumonia in neonatal intensive care unit patients. Am J Infect Control 2005; 33:439–43.
82. Leth RA, Moller JK. Surveillance of hospital-acquired infections based on electronic hospital registries. J Hosp Infect 2006; 62:71–9.
83. Wald HL, Bandle B, Richard AA, Min SJ, Capezuti E. Implementation of electronic surveillance of catheter use and catheter-associated urinary tract infection at Nurses Improving Care for Healthsystem Elders (NICHE) hospitals. Am J Infect Control. 2014 Oct;42(10 Suppl):S242-9.
84. Ava Amini, David W. Birnbaum, Bernard Black, David A.Hyman. Public Reporting of Hospital Infection Rates: Ranking the States on Credibility and User Friendliness. Public Reporting of Hospital Infection Rates. 2013 ITCH 2013 Steering Committee and IOS Press. р.87-92 doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-203-5-87
2. Mikael Rahmqvist, Annika Samuelsson, Salumeh Bastami, Hans Rutberg. Direct health care costs and length of hospital stay related to health care-acquired infections in adult patients based on point prevalence measurements. American Journal of Infection Control Volume 44, Issue 5, 1 May 2016, Pages 500–506
3. Eyal Zimlichman, MD, Daniel Henderson, Orly Tamir, Health Care –Associated Infections. A Meta-analysis of Costs and Financial Impact on the US Health Care System JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(22):2039-2046.
4. WHO, Report on the Burden of Endemic Health Care-Associated Infection Worldwide: a system review of the literature. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/80135/1/9789241501507_eng.pdf. 2011.
5. Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, Zaidi AK, Wertheim HF, Sumpradit N, et al., Antibiotic resistancethe need for global solutions. Lancet Infect Dis, 2013. 13(12): p. 1057–1098.
6. Teresa Cardoso, Mónica Almeida, N Deborah Friedman, Irene Aragão, Altamiro Costa-Pereira, António E Sarmento, Luís Azevedo. Classification of healthcare-associated infection: a systematic review 10 years after the first proposal BMC Medicine 2014,12:40
7. Lenz R, Leal JR, Church DL, Gregson DB, Ross T, Laupland KB: The distinct category of healthcare associated bloodstream infections. BMC Infect Dis. 2012, 12: 85-10.1186/1471-2334-12-85.
8. Grenier C, Pepin J, Nault V, Howson J, Fournier X, Poirier M-S, Cabana J, Craig C, Beaudoin M, Valiquette L: Impact of guideline-consistent therapy on outcome of patients with healthcare-associated and community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011, 66: 1617-1624.
9. Al-Hasan MN, Eckel-Passow JE, Baddour LM: Impact of healthcare-associated acquisition on community-onset Gram-negative bloodstream infection: a population-based study: healthcare-associated Gram-negative BSI. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 31: 1163-1171.
10. Ishida T, Tachibana H, Ito A, Yoshioka H, Arita M, Hashimoto T: Clinical characteristics of nursing and healthcare-associated pneumonia: a Japanese variant of healthcare-associated pneumonia. Intern Med. 2012, 51: 2537-2544.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014 National and State Healthcare-Associated Infections Progress Report. Published March, 2016. Available at www.cdc.gov/hai/progress-report/index.html.
12. Белобородов В.Б. Новые российские национальные рекомендации по нозокомиальной пневмонии, Российская медицинская академия последипломного образования, г. Москва 2 (2) 2009 / Клинические рекомендации
13. Elizabeth N. Mbim, Clement I. Mboto and Bassey E. Agbo. A Review of Nosocomial Infections in Sub-Saharan Africa. Mbim et al.; British Microbiology Research Journal BMRJ, 15(1): 1-11, 2016
14. Eliézer Silva; Luiz Dalfior Junior, Haggéas da Silveira, Fernandes, Rui Moreno, Jean-Louis Vincent. Prevalence and outcomes of infections in Brazilian ICUs: a subanalysis of EPIC II study. Rev. bras. ter. intensiva vol.24 no.2 São Paulo Apr./June 2012
15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014 National and State Healthcare-Associated Infections Progress Report. Published March, 2016. Available at www.cdc.gov/hai/progress-report/index.html.
16. Zimlichman E, Henderson D, Tamir O, et al. Health care-associated infections: a meta-analysis of costs and financial impact on the US health care system. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173: 2039-46.
17. CDC NNIS System. National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance (NNIS) Semiannual Report. 2010.
18. Tukenmez Tigen E, Dogru A, Koltka EN, Unlu C, Gura M. Device-associated nosocomial infection rates and distribution of antimicrobial resistance in a medical-surgical intensive care unit in Turkey. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2014;67(1):5-8.
19. Dudeck MA, Edwards JR, Bridson KA, et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) report, data summary for 2013, Device-associated module. Am J Infect Control 2015;43:206-221
20. Mnatzaganian G1, Sprung CL, Zitser-Gurevich Y, Galai N, Goldschmidt N, Levi L, Bar-Lavi Y, Zveibil F, Salz IW, Ekka-Zohar A,Simchen E. Effect of infections on 30-day mortality among critically ill patients hospitalized in and out of the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2008 Apr;36(4):1097-104.
21. Custovic A, Smajlovic J2, Hadzic S, Ahmetagic S, Tihic N, Hadzagic H. Epidemiological surveillance of bacterial nosocomial infections in the surgical intensive care unit. Mater Sociomed. 2014 Feb;26(1):7-11.
22. Kaweesak Chittawatanarat, Wuttipong Jaipakdee, Narain Chotirosniramit, Kamtone Chandacham, Tidarat Jirapongcharoenlap. Microbiology, resistance patterns, and risk factors of mortality in ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia in a Northern Thai tertiary-care university based general surgical intensive care unit. Infection and Drug Resistance 2014:7 203–210
23. Zuhal Yesilbağ, Asli Karadeniz, Seniha Başaran, Fatih Öner Kaya. Nosocomial infections and risk factors in intensive care unit of a university hospital. 239 Journal of Clinical and Experimental Investigations. 2015; 6 (3): 233-239
24. Tao L, Hu B, Rosenthal VD, Gao X, He L. Device-associated infection rates in 398 intensive care units in Shanghai, China: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings. Int J Infect Dis. 2011 Nov;15(11):e774-80.
25. Parida S, Mishra SK. Urinary tract infections in the critical care unit: A brief review. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2013 Nov;17(6):370-4.
26. В.А. Руднов, Д.В. Бельский, А.В. Дехнич. Инфекции в ОРИТ России: результаты национального многоцентрового исследования. Клин Микробиол Антимикроб Химиотер. 2011; 13(4):294-303
27. Liu Ju yuan, Li Yan ming, Cai Meng. Comparative study of surveillance method of healthcare associated infections based on point prevalence survey and hospital-wide surveillance. Abstracts of the 7th International Congress of the Asia Pacific Society of Infection Control, Taipei, Taiwan, March 26-29, 2015,p. S45
28. VinayBadhwar, Jeffrey P.Jacobs. Infections Following Cardiac Surgery: An Opportunity for Clarity. Journal of the American College of Cardiology Volume 65, Issue 1, 6–13 January 2015, Pages 24-26
29. Kavitha Saravu, V. Preethi, Rishikesh Kumar, Vasudev Guddattu, Ananthakrishna Barkur Shastry, Chiranjay Mukhopadhyay Determinants of ventilator associated pneumonia and its impact on prognosis: A tertiary care experience. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2013 Nov-Dec; 17(6): 337–342.
30. Akhtar N. Hospital acquired infections in a medical intensive care unit. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2010 Jun;20(6):386-90.
31. Белобородов, В.Б. Антимикробная терапия тяжелых инфекций в стационаре. Антибактериальная терапия инфекций в отделениях реанимации и интенсивной терапии. -2003. -Т № 2. -С 4 21
32. Louis V, Bihari MB, Suter P, et al. The prevalence of nosocomial Infections in intensive care units in Europe. European Prevalence of infection in Intensive care (EPIC) study. JAMA1995;274: 639–44
33. Magill SS, Edwards JR, Bamberg W, Beldavs ZG, Dumyati G, Kainer MA, et al., Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections. N Engl J Med, 2014. 370(13): p. 1198–1208
34. ECDC, Point prevalence survey of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial use in European acute care hospitals 2011–2012. Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2013.
35. Erdem H, Inan A, Altindis S, Carevic B, Askarian M, Cottle L, et al., Surveillance, control and management of infections in intensive care units in Southern Europe, Turkey and Iran—a prospective multicenter point prevalence study. J Infect, 2014. 68(2): p. 131–140.
36. Moi Lin Ling, Anucha Apisarnthanarak, Gilbert Madriaga. The Burden of Healthcare-Associated Infections in Southeast Asia: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-analysis. Clinical Infectious Diseases Advance Access published March 11, 2015. DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ095
37. Micha Scherbaum, Katrin Kösters, Raymund Egid Mürbeth, Ulysse Ateba Ngoa, Peter Gottfried Kremsner,Bertrand Lell, and Abraham Alabi. Incidence, pathogens and resistance patterns of nosocomial infection at rural hospital in Gabon BMC Infect Dis.2014;14:124.
38. Fereshteh Farzianpour, Ahad Bakhtiari, Mohsen Mohammadi, Omid Khosravizadeh, Hoda Mossavi5, Mohammad Mohseni4, Mohammad Mahboub. Analysis of Nosocomial Infections in Selected Teaching Hospitals, Qazvin, Iran. Health, 2014, 6, 2425-2432
39. Keshni Naidu, Ilisapeci Nabose, Sharan Ram, Kerri Viney, Stephen M. Graham, Karen Bissell A Descriptive Study of Nosocomial Infections in an Adult Intensive Care Unit in Fiji: 2011-12 Journal of Tropical Medicine Volume 2014 (2014), Article ID 545160, 5 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/545160
40. Phu VD, Wertheim HFL, Larsson M, Nadjm B, Dinh Q-D, Nilsson LE, et al. (2016) Burden of Hospital Acquired Infections and Antimicrobial Use in Vietnamese Adult Intensive Care Units. PLoS ONE 11(1): e0147544. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147544
41. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Salomao R, et al. Device-associated nosocomial infections in 55 intensive care units of 8 developing countries. Ann Intern Med 2006; 145: 582-591.
42. Rosenthal VD, Guzman S, Orellano PW. Nosocomial infections in medical-surgical intensive care units in Argentina: attributable mortality and length of stay. Am J Infect Control 2003; 31: 291-295.
43. Velasco E, Thuler LC, Martins CA, Dias LM, Goncalves VM. Nosocomial infections in an oncology intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 1997; 25: 458-462
44. Cevik MA, Yilmaz GR, Erdinc FS, Ucler S, Tulek NE. Relationship between nosocomial infection and mortality in a neurology intensive care unit in Turkey. J Hosp Infect 2005; 59: 324-330.
45. NNIS System. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2003, issued August 2003. Am J Infect Control 2003; 31: 481-498
46. Edwards JR, Peterson KD, Mu Y, et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) report: data summary for 2006 through 2008, issued December 2009. Am J Infect Control 2009; 37: 783-805.
47. KISS Krankenhaus-Infektions-Surveillance-System. Modul ITS-KISS MRE-KISS Referenzdaten Berechnungszeitraum: Januar 2005 bis Dezember 2009. 2010 [in German]. http://www.nrz-hygiene.de/surveillance/kiss/its-kiss/mre-kiss/bc785276/419/452/. (accessed Oct 1, 2010).
48. Arabi Y, Al-Shirawi N, Memish Z, Anzueto A. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults in developing countries: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2008; 12: 505-512.
49. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Mehta Y, Leblebicioglu H, Memish ZA, Al-Mousa HH, et al., International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) report, data summary of 43 countries for 2007–2012. Device-associated module. Am J Infect Control, 2014. 42(9): p. 942–956.
50. Nejad SB, Allegranzi B, Syed SB, Ellis B, Pittet D. Health-care-associated infection in Africa: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ. 2011;14:757–765.
51. Rosenthal VD, Bijie H, Maki DG. International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) report, data summary of 36 countries for 2004–2009. Am J Infect Control 2012; 40:396–407.
52. Hu B, Tao L, Rosenthal VD, Liu K, Yun Y, Suo Y. Device-associated infection rates, device use, length of stay, and mortality in intensive care units of 4 Chinese hospitals: International Nosocomial Control Consortium findings. Am J Infect Control 2013; 41:301–6.
53. Kanj SS, Kanafi ZA, Sidani N, Alamuddin L, Zahreddine N, Rosenthal VD. International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium. Findings of device-associated infections rate in an intensive care unit of a Lebanese university hospital. J Global Infect Dis 2012; 4:15–21
54. Guanche-Garcell H, Requejo-Pino O, Rosenthal VD, Morales-Perez C, Delgado-Gonzalez O, Fernandez-Gonzalez D. Device-associated infection rates in adult intensive care units of Cuban university hospitals: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings. Int J Infect Dis 2011; 15:e357–62.
55. Su C-H, Chang S-C, Yan J-J, Tseng S-H, Chien L-J, Fang C-T. Excess mortality and long-term disability from healthcare-associated Staphylococcus aureus infections: a population-based matched cohort study. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71055.
56. Kwak YG, Lee S-O, Kim HY, et al. Risk factors for device-associated infection related to organisational characteristics of intensive care units: findings from the Korean Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. J Hosp Infect 2010; 75:195–9.
57. Duerink DO, Roeshadi D, Wahjono H, et al. Surveillance of ealthcareassociated infections in Indonesian hospitals. J Hosp Infect 2006; 62:219–29.
58. Thu AT, Hung NV, Quang NN, et al. A point-prevalence study on healthcare-associated infections in Vietnam: public health implications. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011; 32:1039–41.
59. Navoa-Ng JA, Berba R, Galapia YA, et al. Device-associated infections rates in adult, pediatric, and neonatal intensive care units of hospitals in the Philippines: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings. Am J Infect Control 2011; 39:548–54.
60. Katherason SG, Naing L, Jaalam K, et al. Prospective surveillance of nosocomial device-associated bacteremia in three adult intensive units in Malaysia. Trop Biomed 2010; 27:308–16.
61. Werarak P, Kiratisin P, Thamlikitkul V. Hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults at Siriraj Hospital: etiology, clinical outcomes, and impact of antimicrobial resistance. J Med Assoc Thai 2010; 93(Suppl 1):S126–38.
62. Pada SK, Ding Y, Ling ML, Hsu LY, Earnest A, Lee TE. Economic and clinical impact of nosocomial meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in Singapore: a matched case-control study. J Hosp Infect 2011; 78:36–40.
63. Ha N, Ha NTT. Epidemiology of nosocomial infections in selected neonatal intensive care units in children hospital no1, South Vietnam. Am J Infect Control 2012; 40:31–176.
64. Apisarnthanarak A, Bangsong R, Saelao A, et al. Assessment of the 2007 Thai commitment to the Global Patient Safety Campaign. Am J Infect Control 2014; 42:690–1.
65. Nguyen KV, Thi Do NT, Chandna A, Nguyen TV, Pham CV, Doan PM, et al., Antibiotic use and resistance in emerging economies: a situation analysis for Viet Nam. BMC Public Health, 2013. 13: p. 1158.
66. Ector Jaime Ramirez Barba,a Victor Daniel Rosenthal,b Francisco Higuera,c Martha Sobreyra Oropeza,d Hector Torres Herna´ndez,e Martha Sa´nchez Lo´pez,f Elia Lara Lona,a Pablo Duarte,b Javier Ruiz,b Raul Rojas Hernandez,a Amalia Chavez,e Irma Perez Cerrato,f Gloria Elena Ramirez Ramirez,a and Nasia Safdarg. Device-associated nosocomial infection rates in intensive care units in four Mexican public hospitals. Am J Infect Control 2006;34: 244-7
67. B.-E. Ider a,, A.Clements, J.Adams, M.Whitby, T.Muugolog. Organisation of hospital infection control in Mongolia. Journal of Hospital Infection 75(2010) 209-213
68. Katsumi Shigemura, Kayo Osawa, Akira Mukai, Goh Ohji, Jong Ja Lee, Hiroyuki Yoshida, Masato Fujisawa, Soichi Arakawa. Infection control team activity and recent antibiograms in the Kobe University Hospital. The Journal of Antibiotics (2013) 66, 511–516; doi:10.1038/ja.2013.36
69. Rosenthal MB. Nonpayment for performance? Medicare’s new reimbursement rule. N Engl J Med 2007; 357:1573–5.
70. B. Black, Public Reporting of HAI Rates: What We (Mostly Don’t) Know, Clinical Governance 17(2) (2012), 124-133.
71. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Public Reporting as a Quality Improvement Strategy, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 208. [updated 2012], Available from: ttp://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/ehc/products/343/1198/Evidencereport208 CQG Public Reporting Executive Summary 20120724.pdf.
72. Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Graves N. The International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC): goals and objectives, description of surveillance methods, and operational activities. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36: 1-12
73. Arabi Y, Al-Shirawi N, Memish Z, Anzueto A. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults in developing countries: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2008; 12: 505-512
74. WHO. The world health report 2006: working together for health. http://www.who.int/whr/2006/en/.
75. Horan TC, Andrus M, Dudeck MA. CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care-associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36: 309–32
76. Berwick DM, Calkins DR, McCannon CJ, Hackbarth AD. The 100,000 lives campaign: setting a goal and a deadline for improving health care quality. JAMA 2006; 295:324–7.
77. Trick WE. Building a data warehouse for infection control. Am J Infect Control 2008; 36:S75–81.
78. Bradley W. Thomas, Robert A. Maxwell, Benjamin W. Dart, Elizabeth H. Hartmann, Dustin L. Bates, Philip W. Smith, Donald E. Barker. Errors in Administrative-Reported Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia Rates: Are Never Events Really So? Annual Scientific Meeting and Postgraduate Course Program, Southeastern Surgical Congress, Chattanooga, TN, February 12–15, 2011, No. 8,p.998-1002
79. Moro ML, Morsillo F. Can hospital discharge diagnoses be used for surveillance of surgical-site infections? J Hosp Infect 2004; 56:239–41.
80. Klompas M. Does this patient have ventilator-associated pneumonia? JAMA 2007; 297:1583–93.
81. Haas JP, Mendonca EA, Ross B, Friedman C, Larson E. Use of computerized surveillance to detect nosocomial pneumonia in neonatal intensive care unit patients. Am J Infect Control 2005; 33:439–43.
82. Leth RA, Moller JK. Surveillance of hospital-acquired infections based on electronic hospital registries. J Hosp Infect 2006; 62:71–9.
83. Wald HL, Bandle B, Richard AA, Min SJ, Capezuti E. Implementation of electronic surveillance of catheter use and catheter-associated urinary tract infection at Nurses Improving Care for Healthsystem Elders (NICHE) hospitals. Am J Infect Control. 2014 Oct;42(10 Suppl):S242-9.
84. Ava Amini, David W. Birnbaum, Bernard Black, David A.Hyman. Public Reporting of Hospital Infection Rates: Ranking the States on Credibility and User Friendliness. Public Reporting of Hospital Infection Rates. 2013 ITCH 2013 Steering Committee and IOS Press. р.87-92 doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-203-5-87
Keywords
hospital-acquired infections
intensive care нозокомиальные инфекции
реанимационное отделение
отделение интенсивной терапии
внутригоспитальная инфекция xəstəxanadaxili infeksiya
nozokomial infeksiyalar
reanimasiya şöbəsi
intensive care нозокомиальные инфекции
реанимационное отделение
отделение интенсивной терапии
внутригоспитальная инфекция xəstəxanadaxili infeksiya
nozokomial infeksiyalar
reanimasiya şöbəsi